After discussing the Western Zhou, we now examine the Eastern Zhou period. The Eastern Zhou is commonly divided into the Spring and Autumn Period as well as the Warring States Period.
During the Eastern Zhou era, 25 kings ruled as kings of Zhou, but their power diminished significantly with its territory limited to Luoyi/Luoyang. This decline resulted in a chaotic environment dominated by military might.
Spring and Autumn Period (770 BCE – 476 BCE)
1. Beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period
The Spring and Autumn Period marks the waning of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In 770 BC, King Ping of Zhou moved the capital to Luoyi (modern-day Luoyang), which significantly weakened Zhou royal authority. As feudal states began to emerge, the political landscape fractured further. Although the king retained a nominal title as the ruler of all, he lost actual control over his vassals.
The system of rites and music that the Duke of Zhou had upheld during the Western Zhou period began to collapse, sparking social upheaval. With rising productivity and shifts in social structure, the nobility’s privileges eroded, allowing the commoner class to rise and facilitating a cultural and intellectual boom.
2. Political Structure
This period saw rituals weaken and divisions among feudal states grow. Major states, including Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei, and Qin, engaged frequently in warfare as each sought to expand its territory and power. Qi became economically and culturally influential, Chu dominated the south with its vast expanse, and Jin wielded power in the central plains until internal conflicts led to its decline. The Zhou king devolved into a figurehead, with relationships between states driven more by pragmatic interests than by loyalty.
3. Intellectual and Cultural Development
The Spring and Autumn Period sparked the beginnings of classical Chinese philosophy and paved the way for the “Hundred Schools of Thought.” Confucius (551–479 BCE) founded Confucianism, promoting benevolence, ritual propriety, and virtuous governance, with the aim of restoring Zhou rituals to re-establish social order.
At the same time, Daoism emerged through figures like Laozi and Zhuangzi. Other philosophy such as the Mohism, Legalism, and the School of Names, offered diverse political and ethical ideas reflecting the era’s turbulence. Historiography and literature flourished as well, and continue until the later Warring States Period.
4. Economic and Social Changes
Advances in agriculture, driven by the use of iron tools, led to increased productivity. Handicrafts and commerce thrived, resulting in the formation of towns and markets. As commoners gained power, the influence of the aristocracy diminished. Land tenure transitioned from the “well-field” system to a feudal model centered on noble land grants, establishing a foundation for future feudal societies.
5. Transition to the Warring States
By the late 6th century BCE, conflicts of annexation intensified as stronger states devoured their weaker neighbours, further diminishing the power of the Zhou kingship. Legalism began to replace the earlier ritual-based governance. The Spring and Autumn Period concluded around 481 BC (according to the Bamboo Annals) or 403 BC (according to Zizhi Tongjian), paving the way for the Warring States Period.
6. Historical Significance
This transformative era dismantled the Zhou clan-based hierarchy and ignited intellectual revolutions. Confucianism’s foundation, the debates of the Hundred Schools of Thought, and shifts in socio-economic frameworks dramatically impacted the development of later unified empires.
Warring States Period (475 BCE – 221 BCE)
The Eastern Zhou Dynasty transitions into a new phase known as the Warring States Period. This era features significant political reforms and a focus on military power.
1. Political Landscape
During the Warring States Period, fragmentation and power consolidation characterized the political landscape. The Seven Warring States—Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei, and Qin—continuously fought each other, all striving for dominance. The Qin state rapidly expanded its influence by implementing reforms and strengthening its military. Notable generals like Li Mu and Lian Po effectively resisted Qin’s advances, but over time, power dynamics shifted.
2. Reforms and Military Innovations
To bolster their strength, various states enacted radical reforms:
– The Shang Yang Reforms in Qin (c. 356 BCE) proved especially effective by:
– Abolishing hereditary nobility
– Promoting agriculture and military service
– Introducing strict legal punishments
– Centralizing power
Other states, such as Wei and Zhao, also reformed their military and administrative structures. This era saw the formalization of Chinese military thought, with Sun Tzu’s ‘Art of War’ emerging as a foundational text. Additionally, widespread iron usage significantly improved weaponry.
3. Economic and Social Development
The introduction of iron tools greatly enhanced agricultural productivity, supporting population growth and meeting the demands of warfare. Trade flourished as states constructed roads and canals, leading to prosperous handicraft industries. As a result, new classes of merchants and landlords emerged, further evolving the feudal system.
4. Cultural and Philosophical Brilliance
This period in China’s history was unique and nurtured many classic philosophers whose works continue to influence modern generations.
The “Hundred Schools of Thought” flourished during this period:
– “Confucianism” emphasized virtue, filial piety, and benevolent governance.
– “Daoism” promoted individual freedom and harmony with nature.
– “Mohism” advocated for universal love and opposed warfare.
– “Legalism”, articulated by Han Feizi, stressed strict laws and centralized authority.
– “Art of War” by Sun Tzu -is a foundational text in military strategy and has been studied and applied by the U.S. military for decades. Its principles of strategy, deception, and understanding the enemy are still considered relevant and are taught at institutions like the United States Military Academy.
Intellectuals produced significant writings such as “Strategies of the Warring States” (Zhanguo Ce) and “Lüshi Chunqiu”, showcasing the era’s rich philosophical discourse.
Fall of the China Third Dynasty Zhou
The Zhou Dynasty, which lasted approximately 790 years, has drawn to a close. The Qin state’s relentless expansion, fueled by reforms, adopted a strategy of “allying with the distant and attacking the near.” Over time, the Qin conquered the other six states one by one between 230 and 221 BCE. Generals like Bai Qi and Wang Jian led decisive campaigns during this period.
In 221 BCE, King Zheng of Qin unified China and became the First Emperor (Qin Shi Huang), establishing the Qin Dynasty, the first centralized empire in China. This unification represented a shift from feudal fragmentation to imperial unity. The political centralization, military advancements, legal reforms, and diverse philosophies from this period significantly shaped imperial China’s future.
The Next Phase of Chinese History
The collapse of the Zhou Dynasty marks a crucial turning point in Chinese history. The lengthy succession of dynasties—from Xia to Shang and then to Zhou—characterized by feudal society, has ended, spanning more than 1800 years. Moving forward, China will evolve into a structure more recognizable to us today, ruled by Emperors wielding centralized power without relying on the support of vassal states. Qin Shi Huang will be celebrated as the First Emperor of this unified realm.
Confucious - Chinese Great Philosopher
There is a person who left a mark more significant than any others have in the East Zhou period, and we have not mentioned his name as of now. Yes, his name is Kong Qiu, or more well-known as Confucius in the western media.
Born in 551 BC in the declining state of Lu, Kong Qiu faced numerous challenges early in life, including the loss of his father at just three years old and his mother at seventeen. These hardships ignited his desire for order and harmony. He dedicated his life to restoring Zhou rituals, transforming them into internal moral requirements, and introduced the core concept of “benevolence.” In the ‘Analects’, he famously stated, “If a man is not benevolent, what good is ritual?” This assertion flipped the traditional view of the relationship between ritual and humanity, arguing that rituals should serve as a path to moral perfection.
Over the course of fourteen years, Confucius travelled across various states, enduring challenges such as assassination attempts and food shortages. His true spiritual strength emerged during these trials. He emphasized that a gentleman retains his virtue even in poverty, laying a strong foundation for future generations.
Confucius and his significance
Confucius transformed education by asserting that “teaching is for all.” He welcomed both nobility and the impoverished among his three thousand disciples. Through dialogue and personal example, he inspired students, focusing on cultivating moral consciousness rather than simply imparting technical skills.
In his later years, Confucius returned to Lu, where he compiled important classics such as the ‘Book of Songs’ and the ‘Spring and Autumn Annals’. His work established a system of value judgments that influenced society for millennia. Confucius passed away in 479 BC at the age of 71, and his teachings gradually became the mainstream tradition of Chinese civilization, shaping the intellectual landscape for centuries. Kong Qiu is instrumental in uplifting the notion of Filial Piety.
I recognize that there is much more to discuss about Confucius, and I may write another article to share additional insights about him in the future.
Various Writing Forms During the East Zhou
During the Warring States era, scholars divided writing forms into two major systems: the “Six Kingdoms script” and the “Qin Dynasty script.”
The Six Kingdoms—Han, Zhao, Wei, Qi, Chu, and Yan—each developed their own scripts, resulting in various regional variations with simplified and diverse forms. These scripts differed due to the independent operation of the vassal states, which were not subject to one another.
In contrast, the Qin Dynasty inherited traditions from the Western Zhou Dynasty, creating standardized and unified structures that evolved into Zhuanwen (Dazhuan).
After the Qin state unified the remaining six states into what is now known as China, it established a single official writing system. This system continued to evolve and eventually transformed into today’s Han Zhi.
Below are the different variants of the word “馬,” meaning “horse.”
Historical City Ruins Worth Visiting
During the Spring and Autumn periods, as well as the Warring States period, various feudal states constructed numerous fortified cities while battling for land and resources. The ruins of these cities provide valuable archaeological evidence that enhances our understanding of the social structure and military defenses of that era. Notable examples include:
1, Ancient Capital Ruins of the State of Qi (modern Zibo, Shandong):
Located in Zibo City, Shandong Province, this site served as the capital of Qi. It is a key location for studying the history and culture of the Qi State.
2, Capital Ruins of the State of Chu
(modern Jiangling, Hubei):
Located in Jiangling County, Hubei Province, this was the capital of the State of Chu. Many exquisite artifacts of Chu culture have been discovered here.
3, Capital Ruins of the State of Wei
(modern Kaifeng, Henan):
Located in Kaifeng City, Henan Province, this was the capital of Wei. Many important cultural relics have been unearthed from this site.
4, Capital Ruins of the State of Qin (modern Xianyang, Shaanxi):
Found in Xianyang City, Shaanxi Province, this was the capital of the Qin State. It serves as a vital site for studying Qin’s history and cultural development.
5, Capital Ruins of the State of Jin (modern Houma, Shanxi):
Located in Houma City, Shanxi Province, this site was the capital of the State of Jin. Numerous valuable artifacts have been unearthed here, including bronzeware and jade objects.
6, Capital Ruins of the State of Zhao (modern Handan, Hebei):
Found in Handan City, Hebei Province, this was the capital of the Zhao State. A significant number of precious relics have been excavated.
7, Capital Ruins of the State of Yan (modern Fangshan District, Beijing):
Located in the Fangshan District of Beijing, this site was the capital of Yan. It is crucial for research on Yan’s history and culture.
