Qin Dynasty stands as China’s first unified dynasty on 221 BCE, characterized by centralized power. Qin’s mighty army ended the 550 years of chaotic periods known as the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States. King Ying Zheng declared himself as the Qin Shi Huang, meaning “the First Emperor.” Today we will talk about the Qin Dynasty, the first Emperor and the Terracotta Army
The First Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, defeated and unified the six states, establishing China’s first unified dynasty, the Qin Dynasty. He centralized power, abolished feudal fiefdoms, standardized the language, currency, and measurements, and built and extended the Great Wall and highways.
After 11 years, he died, leaving the throne to his son, Qin Er Shi (also known as Hu Hai). Hu Hai enforced harsh laws and faced the uprising led by Chen Sheng and Wu Guang. He committed suicide three years later. King Ziyi briefly took over but surrendered to the insurgent Liu Bang in just 46 days. This marks the end of the Qin Dynasty… the story ends.
Yes, you read that correctly. The powerful Qin defeated all other strong states to establish a unified China, but it lasted only 14 years before collapsing. Notably, the Qin evolved from a small county into the Qin Dynasty over the course of approximately 700 years, yet it had swiftly vanished from China’s political stage. What an irony.
The Rise and Legacy of the Qin State
During the Western Zhou era, at 905 BCE, King Zhou appointed Qin Fei Zhi to manage his vassal, named Qin, recognizing Qin’s exceptional skill in raising horses. For over a hundred years, Qin remain to be a small county and provided the king with high-quality horses.
At 771 BCE, the Qin State rose to prominence as a feudal state on the western frontier, gaining recognition for protecting King Ping during his eastward migration.
In the early Warring States Period, internal conflict weakened the Qin until Duke Xiao appointed Shang Yang. Shang Yang enacted vital reforms that abolished hereditary nobility and promoted agriculture and military service, significantly strengthening the state. Over the following centuries, the Qin thrived under capable rulers and established a formidable military force.
Crucial Military Reforms
Shang Yang’s reforms enabled the Qin state to establish a military nobility system based on merit. This system reward soldiers with titles that reflected their bravery and valour. The Qin also enforced rigorous military training and implemented the “Ten-Five” system to enhance military discipline.
Additionally, the Qin combined farming and warfare, ensuring that people cultivated crops during harvest season and prepared for battle during wartime. They developed water conservancy projects to secure a reliable supply of military rations. Furthermore, the Qin standardized weaponry to boost their military’s combat effectiveness and offered rewards for annexing foreign lands, thereby continuously expanding their military strength.
At 221 BCE, almost 700 years since the Qin inception, Qin Dynasty established under the King Ying Zheng as the first centralized dynasty in China. Zheng declared himself as the Qin Shi Huang, meaning “the First Emperor.”
Transformative Innovations of the Qin Dynasty: Shaping China's Future
Although the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE) lasted only 14 years, its groundbreaking institutions and cultural initiatives had a profound impact on Chinese history. Here are the major innovations of the Qin Dynasty:
1. Political System
a. Centralized Power
The Qin Dynasty centralized power, establishing China’s first unified dynasty. It abolished the feudal system and introduced a county system, organizing the country into 36 counties, which eventually grew to over 40. This change placed local governments directly under the central authority.
The Emperor proclaimed supreme imperial power, a practice that later dynasties would adopt.
b. Three Dukes and Nine Ministers
The central government operated with three dukes: the Prime Minister managed administration, the Grand Marshal oversaw military affairs, and the Grand Censor handled supervision. Below them, nine ministers took responsibility for specific matters, leading to a systematic bureaucratic framework.
2. Economy and People's Livelihoods
a. Unified Currency
The Qin Dynasty abolished old coins from the six states and introduced the round, square-holed “half-liang” coin as the standard copper coin, influencing later generations.
b. Standardization of Weights and Measures
The dynasty established national standards for length, volume, and weight, issuing standard instruments (like Shang Yang’s square liter) to facilitate economic exchange throughout the territory.
c. Land Privatization
Officials implemented the policy of “allowing the common people to cultivate their land,” recognizing private land ownership and forming the basis for a feudal land system.
3. Culture and Writing
a. Unification of Script
Prime Minister Li Si standardized the Chinese language by adopting the small seal script (which later evolved into the official script). This effort eliminated script differences among the six states and reinforced cultural identity.
b. Burning Books and Burying Scholars
The Qin Dynasty strengthened its ideological control by ordering the burning of historical books and texts from various schools of thought, except for medical and agricultural works. Authorities also buried many scholars alive in a controversial move that established a precedent for ideological authoritarianism. While this action may not be considered an innovation, it remains impactful as society continues to condemn it in modern times.
4. Transportation and Engineering
a. Infrastructure Development
The Qin Dynasty constructed a nationwide network of highways centered in Xianyang and opened the northern military route known as the “Qin Straight Road.” These developments strengthened central control over local governments.
b. Lingqu Canal
They dug the Lingqu Canal to connect the Xiangjiang and Lijiang Rivers (modern-day Guangxi), linking the Yangtze and Pearl River systems and fostering development in southern China.
c. The Great Wall
The dynasty connected and repaired walls built by various states during the Warring States Period, establishing the early Great Wall Défense system and serving as the foundation for later constructions.
5. Law and Military
a. Strict Legal System
The Qin Dynasty implemented the Qin Code and governed according to Legalist principles. They enforced collective responsibility and imposed harsh punishments (like tattooing individuals who threw ashes on the road), emphasizing strict penalties to deter wrongdoing.
b. Military Centralization
The emperor required the use of a tiger talisman for military mobilization to prevent regional separatism. After unification, they confiscated weapons nationwide, melting them down into the “Twelve Golden Men.”
c. Standardized Production
In weaponry manufacturing, officials introduced a system of marking craftsmen’s names on items to ensure accountability and consistent quality, which can be seen as an early form of industrialization.
Influence and Controversy
The Positive Impact
The innovations of the Qin Dynasty laid the foundation for China’s political framework, which the Han Dynasty inherited, influencing governance for over 2,000 years. The concept of “great unification” resonated deeply with the populace.
The Negative Evaluation
However, the dynasty’s tyrannical practices, such as heavy corvée labour and severe laws, contributed to its swift downfall, providing a cautionary lesson for future generations.
In conclusion, the Qin Dynasty, focused on “unification,” marked a pioneering period in Chinese history. Despite its brevity, its influence significantly shaped the course of Chinese civilization.
The Mysterious Demise of China's First Emperor
In 210 BC, during Qin Shi Huang’s fifth eastern tour, he suddenly fell ill and died in Shaqiu (present-day Guangzong, Hebei). To prevent unrest, Prime Minister Li Si and eunuch Zhao Gao concealed the emperor’s death. They placed his body in a chariot and pretended he was still reviewing memorials.
Zhao Gao coerced Li Si into altering the imperial edict, ensuring the death of the emperor’s eldest son “Fusu”, who was meant to succeed him, and instead enthroned his youngest son, “Hu Hai”, as emperor (Qin Er Shi). This conspiracy hastened the downfall of the Qin Dynasty that quickly brought to its knees.
Hu Hai’s Deception: Manipulating the Imperial Edict to Seize the Throne
Qin Shi Huang did not appoint an empress or a crown prince during his reign. This protocol is essential for the transition of power in the event of a tragic incident involving the emperor.
The emperor exiled his eldest son “Fusu”, to the frontier for opposing the persecution of Confucian scholars. He also denied the other princes the title of heir apparent. Hu Hai seized the throne by manipulating an imperial edict, but his tyranny and incompetence hastened the collapse of the Qin dynasty.
If Qin Shi Huang had officially designated a competent crown prince earlier, he could have avoided a power vacuum and potentially delayed his dynasty’s downfall.
Dynasty in Turmoil: The Dramatic Fall of Qin
After Hu Hai ascended the throne, Zhao Gao seized power. Zhao Gao then executed members of the imperial clan and ministers, which led to widespread rebellion. Over the next three years, Chen Sheng, Xiang Yu, and Liu Bang led uprisings, repeatedly defeating the Qin army.
As a result of the turmoil, Zhao Gao forced Hu Hai to death and installed Ziying as King of Qin. Ziying, in turn, executed Zhao Gao, but by then the situation was irreparable. Forty-six days after Ziying’s accession, Liu Bang’s troops arrived at Bashang, prompting Ziying to surrender in a white chariot, marking the end of the Qin dynasty. Subsequently, after entering Xianyang (the capital), Xiang Yu killed Ziying, extinguishing the Qin imperial clan in 206 BCE.
The Legend of the Liu Bang and Xiang Yu
Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, these uprising figures have remained popular for over 2,000 years, with many stories and movies about their exploits circulating today. One story tells of the “Chu-Han Boundary” (楚河汉界).
During the Chu-Han Contention, Xiang Yu (Chu state) forced Liu Bang (Han clan) to retreat, and the two leaders faced off with a canal marked the boundary between their territories. This historic division is remembered as the “Chu-Han Boundary.” If you have played Chinese chess named “XiangQi”, you have seen this boundary—the middle line on the board is named after this famous historical event.
The Emperor’s Pursuit of Immortality
One possible reason Qin Shi Huang did not appoint a crown prince stems from his intense obsession with immortality. He believed he could maintain power indefinitely. Below are several pieces of evidence that support this claim:
a. Immortality Convoy
The emperor frequently dispatched alchemists to sea in search of immortal mountains and the elixir of life. Notably, he sent Xu Fu to lead thousands of young boys and girls eastward to Penglai. According to legend, they eventually reached Japan and became part of the Japanese people.
b. A panacea that turns out to be poison
The First Emperor commissioned alchemists like Lu Sheng and Hou Sheng to create elixirs, but these concoctions contained mercury, a highly toxic substance. This poisoning led the emperor to grow increasingly suspicious and develop a bad temper, worsening his mental issues.
Rumours suggest that the emperor suffers from mental illness, making it difficult for him to communicate effectively with his officers. He constantly worries about potential assassins and has become incredibly distrustful of everyone around him.
Legends say that the emperor’s final eastern tour was intended to find the elixir of life. He believed that his previous convoy might have discovered it, but officers claimed it for themself.
c. Sacrifices of boy and girls
In his quest for the elixir of life and under the advice of charlatans, the emperor offered sacrifices to heaven and earth using “golden boys and jade girls,” hoping to achieve immortality.
d. Guardians of Eternity: The Terracotta Army and the Emperor's Mausoleum
The most significant evidence of the emperor’s obsession with immortality is the Terracotta Army and his mausoleum.
Qin Shi Huang began building his mausoleum at the age of thirteen, immediately after becoming king. Workers continued construction for almost forty years, stopping only when the Qin Dynasty ended. The terracotta army stands ready to serve the emperor in the afterlife, while the mausoleum functions as a heavenly palace where he can continue to rule.
The Terracotta Army
Qin Shi Huang aimed to maintain his military might after death, so he commanded craftsmen to sculpt over 8,000 terracotta soldiers, chariots, and horses representing the elite Qin army. The artisans crafted each figure with unique and realistic clothing, weapons, and hairstyles, showcasing the dynasty’s advanced sculpting techniques and sophisticated military organization.
The Terracotta Army originally displayed bright, lifelike colours, but now they appear plain brown or grey because their pigments did not survive excavation. When workers unearthed the figures and exposed them to air, the lacquer dried, shrank, and flaked off within minutes or hours, which caused the paint to disappear.
People often call these statues the eighth wonder of the world. They showcase the brilliance of ancient Chinese civilization and give historians important material for studying the Qin dynasty.
Qin Shi Huang’s Majestic Mausoleum
The mausoleum stands in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, and ranks among the largest and most complex imperial tombs in the world. It covers 56.25 square kilometers. The central mound reaches 51 meters high and stretches 350 meters from north to south and 345 meters from east to west.
According to the “Records of the Grand Historian” and other legends, the mausoleum mirrors the emperor’s actual palace, allowing him to continue ruling his empire even after death. It is constructed with mercury to represent rivers, lakes, and seas, the dome is inlaid with gemstones to represent celestial phenomena.
The Eternal Palace of the Emperor
This miniature representation mimicking the entire land of his territory, combined with the vast starry sky, symbolizes a cosmic vision of “astronomy above and geography below.” This grand design encompasses both the imperial domain and the vast heavens within the mausoleum. This is Qin Shi Huang’s eternal ambition to “live on in death.”
Can you imagine that magnificent scene inside? Let us use our imagination to create our own picture of the Qin Emperor’s Mausoleum.
The Emperor’s Mausoleum: A Secret Still Waiting
Previous explorations revealed an unusually high concentration of mercury around the mausoleum, which seems to confirm earlier legends. Archaeologists now avoid excavating the Qin mausoleum, drawing on lessons from the Terracotta Army that show preservation is wiser than exploration with current technology. Digging today could destroy priceless relics, so fully preserving the Mausoleum demonstrates the greatest respect for history. This cautious approach is also shaped by respect for the cultural context and the lessons embedded in local tradition.
As we have discussed before, Chinese historical legends deserve respect, as past examples frequently reveal a foundation in truth. Building on this attitude, archaeologists do not want to repeat the tragic mistake.
Cultural Wonders of Ancient China: The Terracotta Army and the Great Wall
Nonetheless, the Qin Dynasty still left us many wonderful cultural relics, such as the Terracotta Army Museum in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. People recognize it as the eighth wonder of the world and flock to visit it every year.
The Great Wall of China stands as another wonder. Picture a nearly 9,000-kilometer-long dragon weaving its way across the sweeping landscape.
As the saying goes, “He who hasn’t visited the Great Wall is not a true man.”
I set foot on its ancient stones exactly 25 years ago, and the memory remains vivid to this day.
When will you begin your journey?
